poison

The Tree of Death – Manchineel

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Plants can be terrifying organisms. Trees, however, are generally not often counted among those to be feared. For the vast majority of species, the only harm they are capable of inflicting is caused by falling over at an inopportune moment in time. This is wildly not the case for the manchineel tree (Hippomane mancinella L.). Native to the tropical Americas, primarily Central and South America, the West Indies, and the peninsula of Florida, this plant is commonly known as arbol de la muerte and manzanilla de la muerte, meaning the tree of death and little apple of death, respectively (Adolf & Hecker 2004; Andreu & Friedman 2012; Boucaud-Maitre et al. 2019). Within the genus name, you may notice a familiar name: hippo. This is the Greek word for horse and you might be wondering what horses have to do with a toxic plant. The second part of the genus, mane, is derived from mania, referring to madness. As a whole, Hippomane essentially means horse madness. An ancient Greek philosopher, Theophrastus, bestowed this name upon a plant native to Greece that apparently caused horses to act crazy after eating it. Later on, Linnaeus then gave this same name to the manchineel tree when he described it (Andreu & Friedman 2012). Now that we have addressed the hippo in the room, what makes this tree so damn awful?

A stand of manchineel trees. Not the red paint on some of the trunks, designating them as dangerous. (Wikimedia Commons)

Typically growing to 20 feet tall or so but capable of reaching heights as great as 50 feet, the manchineel is a member of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae (Andreu & Friedman 2012; Hack 2026; Lauter 1952). This diverse family is famous for the latex that damaged plants produce. You may have even experienced this yourself if you have ever broken a poinsettia leaf during the holidays. It will ooze a milky sap that is slightly irritating to the skin, but nothing more harmful than that. The vast majority of the family is similar. Some, like the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg), are even greatly beneficial to our modern lives through providing a product that has countless uses (Guerra et al. 2021; Jacob et al. 1993). Just like its cousins, the manchineel tree also produces a natural latex (Adolf & Hecker 2004; Hack 2026). But unlike other members of its family, the sap and tissues of this plant are packed with highly toxic compounds that are capable of causing damage, even death, in a wide variety of ways. The main components that make it so dangerous are Hippomanin A and a group of 18 phenolic compounds consisting of various plant toxin chemical groups (Aluja et al. 2020). Direct contact with any part of the plant can result in inflammation, burning, blistering, and formation of lesions (Blue et al. 2011; Pitts et al. 1993). If the sap gets into the eyes, it can cause severe conjunctivitis and inflammation of the cornea leading to intense pain, blurring of the vision, and potentially temporary or permanent blindness (Howard 1981; Munoz & Norton 2024; Pitts et al. 1993). I know what you’re thinking: “That’s easy! I just won’t touch it and I’ll be fine.” Unfortunately, that’s not the case. Even if you don’t directly touch the manchineel, it can still harm you. All you need to do is just be near it. There are many instances of people taking shelter from the rain under this tree, only to be severely wounded from the water mixing with the toxic sap and dripping onto the body (Blue et al. 2011). Cutting any part of the tree creates sawdust full of these dangerous compounds that can come into contact with the skin and eyes and even be inhaled. Burning the wood releases poisonous smoke that can irritate the lungs, eyes, and skin (Munoz & Norton 2024; Muscat 2019).

Leaves and flower spike (Wikimedia Commons)

The fruits of the manchineel are small, about the size of a golf ball, but they resemble a greenish-yellow apple (hence manzanilla de la muerte) and have a similar smell. They can commonly be found scattered on the ground underneath the canopy of the trees or strewn about the beaches they call home. Due to its enticing nature, many a person has mistakenly eaten the fruit. Those who have done so often report an initially pleasantly sweet taste, quickly followed by an intense, burning pain (Stickland 2000). Eating even just a small amount can progresses from pain into dysphagia, excessive salivation, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea (Boucaud-Maitre et al. 2019; Strickland 2000). It can also result in ulceration and bleeding of the mouth, esophagus, and stomach (Carroll 1952; Boucaud-Maitre et al. 2019). In some cases, and depending upon how much fruit has been ingested, symptoms can advance to changes in heart rhythm, hypotension, depression of the central nervous system, and potentially death (Hack 2026; Pitts 1993). But eating the fruit alone is not necessary to experience the horrors of the manchineel. Water saturated with leaves and branches becomes poisonous as well (Carroll 1952; Hack 2026; Pitts et al. 1993).

The apple-like fruit of a manchineel (Credit: Hans Hillewaert)

Despite its fearsome nature, the manchineel isn’t all bad. The Kalinago and other Indigenous peoples of the lesser Antilles and Caribbean have historically used the noxious sap to coat their arrows for hunting purposes (Adolf & Hecker 2004; Boucaud-Maitre et al. 2019; Munoz & Norton 2024; Muscat 2019). It is also culturally important for its use in medicines to treat a variety of ailments (Andreu & Friedman 2012; Carroll 1952; Lauter et al. 1952). The root systems of these trees also help give structure to the seashores where they occur, preventing beach erosion (Pitts 1993). Although toxic to many animals, some appear to be immune and will readily eat the fruit or use the trees as habitat (Andreu & Friedman 2012). The small green flowers of the manchineel provide nectar to native pollinators, and honeybees will even create honey from it, which is reportedly non-toxic (Adolf & Hecker 2004; Pitts 1993). Pollinators are not the only insects with a relationship to this plant. Aluja et al. (2020) have explored an extremely close interaction between the manchineel and a species of fruit fly (Anastrepha acris) that exclusively feeds on its fruit. The larvae of the fly appear to have metabolic machinery, most likely microbes, capable of breaking down the toxic compound, Hippomanin A, within the plant’s tissues. This in turn makes the fly’s larvae a suitable and safe host for the endoparasitoid wasp, Doryctobracon areolatus (Aluja et al. 2020).

A warning sign for nearby manchineel trees (Wikimedia Commons)

The manchineel’s reputation as the world’s most dangerous tree has led to its eradication across most of its native range in Florida (Andreu & Friedman 2012; Boucaud-Maitre et al. 2019; Hack 2026; Munoz & Norton 2024; Wunderlin et al. 2025). Because of this and general habitat loss within the state, it is currently listed as an endangered species and only resides in places that are still wild such as the Everglades (Andreu & Friedman 2012; Munoz & Norton 2024; Wunderlin et al. 2025). It is still locally abundant throughout much of its range outside of Florida, however, thus posing a potential threat to those who are unfamiliar with it (Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group 2019). As with any organism that can be dangerous to humans, it is important not to villainize the manchineel. Yes, it is capable of inflicting massive amounts of harm; but if it is given space and treated with the respect it deserves, it poses no threat to us and provides many ecological and cultural benefits. The more we learn about it, the more secrets we may uncover as to those benefits, particularly in medicine. The manchineel is truly an incredible and fascinating plant that exemplifies the phenomenal diversity of our planet.

References:

1. Adolf, W., & Hecker, E. (2004). On the Active Principles of the Spurge Family, X. 1,2Skin Irritants, Cocarcinogens, and Cryptic Cocarcinogens from the Latex of the Manchineel Tree. Journal of Natural Products, 47(3), 482–496. https://doi.org/10.1021/np50033a015

2. Aluja, M., Pascacio-Villafán, C., Altúzar-Molina, A., Monribot-Villanueva, J., Guerrero-Analco, J. A., Enciso, E., Ortega, R., Acosta, E., & Guillén, L. (2020). Insights into the Interaction between the Monophagous Tephritid Fly Anastrepha acris and its Highly Toxic Host Hippomane mancinella (Euphorbiaceae). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 46(4), 430–441. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-020-01164-8

3. Andreu, M. G., & Friedman, M. H. (2012). Hippomane mancinella, Manchineel: FOR302/FR370, 7/2012. EDIS, 2012(10). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fr370-2012

4. Blue, L. M., Sailing, C., DeNapoles, C., Fondots, J., & Johnson, E. S. (2011). Manchineel Dermatitis in North American Students in the Caribbean. Journal of Travel Medicine, 18(6), 422–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1708-8305.2011.00568.x

5. Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group. (2019). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Hippomane mancinella. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. https://www.iucnredlist.org/en

6. Boucaud-Maitre, D., Cachet, X., Bouzidi, C., Riffault-Valois, L., Dupuy, C., Garnier, R., & Langrand, J. (2019). Severity of manchineel fruit (Hippomane mancinella) poisoning: A retrospective case series of 97 patients from French Poison Control Centers. Toxicon, 161, 28–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.02.014

7. Carroll, M. N. (1952). The Pharmacology and Toxicology of Extracts, Extractives and Crystalline Substances Obtained from Hippomane Mancinella L. [Ph.D., University of Florida]. https://www.proquest.com/docview/302035970/citation/15C0955433894D24PQ/1

8. Guerra, N. B., Sant’Ana Pegorin, G., Boratto, M. H., de Barros, N. R., de Oliveira Graeff, C. F., & Herculano, R. D. (2021). Biomedical applications of natural rubber latex from the rubber tree Hevea brasiliensis. Materials Science and Engineering: C, 126, 112126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2021.112126

9. Hack, J. B. (2026). Toxicology Answer: The Manchineel Tree. ACEP Now. https://www.acepnow.com/article/toxicology-answer-the-manchineel-tree/

10. Howard, R. A. (1981). Three Experiences with the Manchineel (Hippomane spp., Euphorbiaceae). Biotropica, 13(3), 224–227. https://doi.org/10.2307/2388129

11. Jacob, J.-L., d’Auzac, J., & Prevôt, J.-C. (1993). The composition of natural latex fromHevea brasiliensis. Clinical Reviews in Allergy. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02914415

12. Lauter, W. M., Fox, L. E., & Ariail, W. T. (1952). Investigation of the Toxic Principles of Hippomane mancinella, L. I. Historical Review*. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (Scientific Ed.). https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.3030410412

13. Munoz, M., Whitecar, S., & Norton, S. A. (2024). Beware the Manchineel: A Case of Irritant Contact Dermatitis. Cutis, 114(4), E14–E17. https://doi.org/10.12788/cutis.1123

14. Muscat, M. K. M. (2019). Manchineel Apple of Death. EJIFCC, 30(3), 346–348.

15. Pitts, J. F., Barker, N. H., Gibbons, D. C., & Jay, J. L. (1993). Manchineel keratoconjunctivitis. The British Journal of Ophthalmology, 77(5), 284–288. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjo.77.5.284

16. Strickland, N. H. (2000). Eating a manchineel “beach apple.” BMJ : British Medical Journal, 321(7258), 428. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7258.428

17. Wunderlin, R. P., Hansen, A. R., Frank, A. R., & Essig, F. B. (2025). Hippomane mancinella / Species Page / Plant Atlas [Academic]. Institute for Systemic Botany. Atlas of Florida Plants. https://florida.plantatlas.usf.edu/plant/species/2806

Nature’s Moste Potente Potion – Golden Poison Frog

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For those of you wondering about the title, no it is not a typo. It is an obscure Harry Potter reference, and if you got it, I applaud you.
Remember that golden poison frog (Phyllobates terribilis) I mentioned in the last article about the hooded pitohui? Well, I thought it should get its very own entry because it’s just such a cool little thing. As I mentioned before, it is one of the few animals that carries the deadly batrachotoxin. It gets this poison from the beetles and ants it eats just, like the pitohui does. The frog, however, is much, much, much more dangerous! You can even get this from its Latin name – “terribilis” speaks for itself. So before I explain how toxic it is, let’s find out where they live and what they’re like so if you ever travel there, you can keep an eye out and avoid them like the plague.
The golden poison frog is found exclusively in the rain forests of Colombia in South America. Instead of living on the forest floor like many other poison frogs, it lives in the trees up to about eight feet above the ground. These poison frogs do come down occasionally, especially when feeding, but generally stick to high up plants. They don’t use bromeliad pools to lay their eggs, so they need to come down to the ground in order to reproduce as well. When the eggs hatch into tadpoles, the parents transport them to water filled tree hollows where they can metamorphose. Golden poison frogs, like other poison frogs, are very social animals and live in groups with up to several individuals in captivity.

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Now the part about their poison. Like I said, it is much stronger than the pitohui’s. It is a very important killing tool to the native people of Colombia when they hunt. Pinning a frog with a stick and rubbing a heated dart across its back can keep the dart effective for two years afterward. Some tribes even keep several of these frogs in woven baskets for their poison, but they must take great care in doing so. Inevitably, there are cases where people have died from accidentally touching a captured frog. The average frog contains around one milligram of poison, which is enough to kill up to 20 adult humans or two male African elephants. This can be translated to 15,000 humans per gram of poison. Not only is the poison toxic while on the frog itself, but it can last once rubbed off as well, as in the case of the poison darts. It is absorbed through the skin, so simply brushing against a frog or something its skin has touched can kill. Batrachotoxin attacks sodium ion channels on cells within the central nervous system, which causes paralysis of pretty much everything including the heart and lungs. This can lead to death for a person in five minutes. The golden poison frog has special sodium channels that aren’t affected by batrachotoxin, which is why it can carry such a deadly substance around without any harm to itself.

Ball and stick model of batrachotoxin’s molecular structure.

Funnily, these frogs are often kept by amphibian hobbyists as pets. It’s okay, though, because captive raised frogs aren’t toxic at all and can be handled freely for as long as the animal will tolerate it. All the poison comes from their diet and captive frogs’ diets are devoid of the prey that gives them their deadly defense. However, wild caught golden poison frogs are dangerous. Even after a change of diet, the toxins can linger in the frog’s body for years afterward, so it is inadvisable to keep anything but a captive bred golden frog. As the name states, they obviously come in a lovely, bright gold color, but there are also a variety of other color morphs. These include the orange morph and mint morph.

Mint morph

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Orange morph by John Clare on Flickr.

As beautiful as golden poison frogs are, stay well away if you ever go to Colombia and find one! You wouldn’t even be able to be sorry if you got too close because you’d be dead.

References:
1. Gratwicke, Brian. “Golden Poison Frog.” WAZA. World Association of Zoos and Aquariums, n.d. Web. 25 June 2015. <http://www.waza.org/en/zoo/choose-a-species/amphibians/frogs-and-toads/phyllobates-terribilis&gt;.

2. Patocka, Jiri, Kräuff S. Wulff, and María V. M. Palomeque. “Dart Poson Frogs and Thier Toxins.” Ed. Colonel R. Price. The ASA Newsletter 74 (1999): n. pag. Applied Science and Analysis. Web. 24 June 2015. <http://www.asanltr.com/ASANews-99/995frogs.htm&gt;.

3. Stuart, Sean K. “The True Poison-Dart Frog: The Golden Poison Frog.” Frogs. Herpetologic.net, n.d. Web. 24 June 2015. <http://www.herpetologic.net/frogs/caresheets/terribilis.html&gt;.

4. Alvarez, Mariela C. and Wiley, Mary. “Phyllobates terribilis”. Animal Diversity Web. University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, 20 Aug. 2011. Web. 24 June 2015. http://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Phyllobates_terribilis/

5. Wunderli, Michael. “Golden Poison Frog (Phyllobates Terribilis)” Encyclopedia of Life. Eol.org, n.d. Web. 25 June 2015. <http://eol.org/pages/1039238/details&gt;.

Photo Links:
1.https://flic.kr/p/6wgLdn

2.http://www.batrachotoxin.com/batrachotoxin720.gif

3.http://vignette4.wikia.nocookie.net/reptiles/images/4/44/Cuddling_Terribilis.jpg

4.https://flic.kr/p/QdySzj

The Poison Bird – Hooded Pitohui

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The hooded hitohui (Pitohui dichrous) of Papua New Guinea is one of the world’s first and only documented poisonous birds. It was discovered to be toxic during a 1989 study of birds of paradise by American ornithologist John “Jack” Dumbacher. He and his team had mist nets set out to catch birds of paradise, but inevitably, other birds were caught in the nets as well. Some of these birds were hooded pitohuis, which would bite and scratch defensively when being extracted from the mist net. Dumbacher got a bite from one of the birds on his finger that started to sting, so he decided suck on the cut to clean it. After about a minute, his lips and tongue started to tingle and burn. This happened to several other volunteers as well so the team wondered if the pitohui was the cause. When more pitohuis were captured, Dumbacher took a feather and put it directly on his tongue, finding that the burning and tingling effects could last for hours. When he returned to America, Dumbacher took some feathers to chemist John Daly at the National Institute of Health. By 1992, Daly discovered that the feathers contained batrachotoxin. It is an extremely powerful steroidal alkaloid poison that is largely neurotoxic, and even relatively small doses can lead to paralysis of all muscles, cardiac arrest, and then death. This is the most toxic natural substance known and is also present in the secretions of several poison dart frogs of the genus Phyllobates (most famously, Phyllobates terribilis – the Golden Poison Frog).

Credit: Brendan Freeman (Wikimedia Commons)

At first it was not known how this bird acquired such a potent toxin, but locals of New Guinea were asked what they knew about hooded pitohuis and relayed their observations. Pitohuis often catch and eat small and colorful Choresine beetles from the Melyridae family. The same toxin has previously been found in these beetles, which are also known to be preyed upon by Phyllobates poison dart frogs. The striking orange and black feathers of the hooded pitohui are another indication of its toxicity. Many poisonous and venomous animals are brightly colored to warn potential predators that they are very dangerous and not to be messed with. This is called aposematic coloration. Any animal unlucky enough to catch a pitohui would quickly learn to stay away when it sees those colors again. Of course, the bird has not always had this defense. First it had to evolve to cope with the poison itself before being able to incorporate the toxin as part of its own defense. It is likely that the first pitohuis that fed on melyrid beetles only ate a few at a time, slowly building up a resistance to batrachotoxin over generations. This toxin has been found in not only the bird’s feathers, but also its flesh.

This amazing, colorful bird just goes to show that even the most seemingly harmless animals can have alarming tricks up their sleeves.

References:
1. Dumbacher, John P., et al. “Homobatrachotoxin in the genus Pitohui: chemical defense in birds?.” SCIENCE-NEW YORK THEN WASHINGTON- (1992): 799-799.

2. Dumbacher, John P., et al. “Melyrid beetles (Choresine): A putative source for the batrachotoxin alkaloids found in poison-dart frogs and toxic passerine birds.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101.45 (2004): 15857-15860.

3. “Jack Dumbacher.” California Academy of Sciences. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 June 2015. <http://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/jack-dumbacher&gt;.

Photo Links:
1. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hooded_Pitohui_3.jpg